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Thang Ta: A journey (Through the history of Kangleipak) from an ancient combat art to a popular modern sport [1st section]

Thang Ta: A journey

(Through the history of Kangleipak)

from an ancient combat art to a popular modern sport [1st section]

 

-1st Part-

(a) Introduction:

Thang Ta is the popular, common name given to ‘Huyen Langlon or Lallong {‘Huyen’~ war; ‘Langlon’~ net/art/knowledge (of the art – hence together ~ knowledge of war art); ‘Lallong’~ knowledge/strategy  of war; hence in simple words, it roughly means the knowledge of art of war/warfare or ~  martial art}, the martial art system of the Meetei race, major inhabitants of the valley of Kangleipak (Meitrabak/Meeteileipak; Sannaleipak; Poirei Meetei Leipak/Poileipak),present day Manipur, Northeast India.

Thang Ta {‘Thang’- sword; ‘Ta’- spear, as these are the major weapons used} is a complete martial art; complete in the sense that it has both the external {the weapons art;  the unarmed aspect: ‘Sharit-Sharak’ or ‘Sarie-Sara’, including the indigenous wrestling/grappling style – throwing & locking art- ‘Mukna’;  the physical exercise- power/strength development, conditioning, balancing,  flexibility etc – Sajen Kanglon}; the internal component{focusing on the awareness of the spirit & mind; meditation & concentration- Hirikonba; & self cultivation}; the health component{Layeng Kanglon; including the breathing control & exercise- Hirikonba}; along with spiritual & ritualistic aspects{the morning practice of Chingkheirol (mostly in olden days); the tradition of Thengou (sacred martial forms/dance) ; the tradition of performing spear martial forms by Pana Khousaba in the Kwak- Tanba festival, (near Hindu Dussehra),& Ta Khousaba (~ spear forms) in Lai Haraoba (Merry festivals of Meetei Deities); even the performance of some of Ta Khousarols in the funeral procession by some group of Meetei – the Chakpa/ Loi & Andro/ yathibi (now mostly are at places like Shekmai, Phayeng, Leimaram, Andro, & various places of Thoubal & Bishnupur, etc Manipur)}

[They are the descendants of a group of brave Meetei people, who dared to oppose the forceful conversion to Hinduism, rather preferred to die & be tortured, & were, thus, expelled & sent to faraway places & hills - being treated as the Sudras, the lowest caste in Hinduism - during the reign of Meitingu (=Meetei king) Pamheiba (1709-1748); & who still are preserving some of the indigenous traditions & cultures of Meetei race].

In short, it is a way of life; an integral element of the Meetei culture; the very foundation upon which the kingdom of Kangleipak was laid; the life giving oil for the lamp, the Meetei race, whose overall survival depended upon it. Hence, not to be amazed, to the local legend, stating the origin of each & every movements of  Meetei from Thang Ta- the world famous Manipuri Classical dance, the splendid Pung & Pala Cholom, the graceful Lai Haraoba dance- all trace their origin in the moves, gaits & postures of Thang Ta.

 

(b) Some words about the origin:

The origin of Thang Ta is full of myths & legends; is believed to be born out of the basic survival instinct, the self- defense needs, the hunting activities{some of the sequences of a particular Ta-Khousaba depict various stages in hunting & catching wild animals}- [Ta-Khousaba: an ancient collection of moves/exercise series designed for mastering/increasing efficiency in handling Ta (spear) & Chung (buckler),& their techniques –  in simple words, most likely, a spear forms/patterns. Its main types are: Maram Nungsetpa, Maram Achouba, Maram Macha, Kabui, Tangkhul, Thel,(Athou, Yangbi & Atan, the main 9 types, as per many learned masters; according to others, in addition to the above six, other main types are- Maram Nungjongba, Athou Chumthang, Athou Macha & Athou Achouba)] – , the military training & experience, & most importantly, the burning desire  & the utmost passion of the Meetei race never to be dependent or under any foreign rule.

One popular legend relates the creation of universe with Thengou [ancient sacred martial art forms/dances performed with sword or spear. As with Ta Khousaba, nine styles are known: Akao Thengou, Leiphal Thengou, Nongphal Thengou, Leichal?/Leichai Thengou, Leipak?/Leikak Thengou, Leinet thengou, Langkak Thengou, Akham Thengou, Leishit Thengou] performed by the Gods. So sacred are the forms considered till today that they have been kept very secret, & revealed only to few worthy, by the great masters, under immense precautions, strict supervision & rituals. Unfortunately, this very fact is making the art prone for extinction.

Another myth is the divine origin of various weapons known to Meeteis as derivations from the limbs & bones of the God, Til Sidaba. Whatever the legends say, the origin & evolution of Thang Ta can be understood (to some extent, even if indirectly) through the origin of Meetei race; the history of Kangleipak {the ancient books & literatures like Cheinarol – with details of many medieval fights & challenges, mainly among the commoners; Saturol Lanturol Sapharol Lanpharol –  concerning about divined laws/rules which a Thang Ta warrior had to follow in a battle field/combat; Takhel Ngamba – concerning various situations in which even an enemy is forgiven or not killed; etc}; the geographical characteristics, interaction with surrounding Kingdoms (their culture & martial arts – including major battles fought); the profile of migration in & out of the kingdom; socio-cultural & religious evolution of the society, life of some of the well known Thang-Ta masters, & lastly the arrival of modern sport movement in Manipur.

 

(c) The Meetei – The Origin:

According to the ancient religion of Meetei, The God Sannamahi (or like the life giving sun, spreading the ray/liquid of life in all directions) created all life forms when there was nothing in the universe, as asked by his father, the supreme god, Atiya Kuru Sidaba (Atiya- vast empty sky; Kuru- circular hemisphere; Sidaba- never ending/no birth, no death present) or Lainingthou Salailel Sitapa (Ipa Salailel or Ipa Sorarel). Then to sustain & propagate the newly created life, The God father sent his younger son, Lord Pakhangba, who became the protector & in due course of time, the King (hence regarded as the first King of the Meetei people).

In another more accepted version, Konchin Tukthapa Ipu Athoupa Pakhangpa, the first Meetei monarch & hence given the name ‘Lailel Pakhangba’ (Lai – God, lel – best/supreme, Pa – Father, khangba – to know), is considered to be the younger son of the God Lainingthou Salailel Sitapa & Leimalel Lailelma Sitapi (Malem Leima – the Earth), who married seven Lai ladies (namely, Laikok Huimulei Puksi Khompi, Huimu Leima, Loikhompi Mawai Thongngai Lelpi, Laiyek Pithet Leima, Leima Ulum Khotchao Tonpi, Leitham Tali Leima, Nonghainu Lilee Leima) & fathered seven sons, the seven Salais, hence the Meetei race.

[(a) Pakhangba laining (worshiping or mediation) was therefore traditionally performed by the Kings, Nobles & Maichous (scholars), which requires deep concentration & meditation, instead of verbal chanting. Hence, Lord Pakhangba is considered to be the source of Thang Ta, so in the past, it was compulsory for every Thang Ta disciple to have a devotion to & worship him (Lord Pakhangba or Ipu Athoupa Pakhangpa). On the other hand, the Sannamahi laishon became common to all people - here, verbal chanting & singings are very common.

(b)The word Meetei breaks as Mee + tei. Mee (means man in Meeteilon) derived from ‘Mi', meaning image/shadow; ‘tei' is from ‘Atei', meaning ‘different from/other than', as its believed that the God created them looking at his image, but are different from him (other than God) & are mortal.]

Scientifically speaking, no one knows, with 100% certainty, the origin of Meetei race – only probabilities & suggestions, based on archeological evidences, the written records, legends, myths & oral traditions etc. The earliest settlers of Kangleipak are believed to be the Himalayan Mongoloids groups (though disagreed by some).The Proto-Austroloid is believed to have inhabited the ancient Kangleipak before the advent of Tibeto-Burmans around 5000-4000 B.C. However, the first evidence of the Pleistocene man here dates back, even to about 30,000 B.C. {as the evidences from Khangkui caves, 11 km southeast of Ukhrul; & from tools found in Machi (in Chandel district), from Maring Naga Village}.

Some argue that the Kangleipak Valley (the dry areas- probably near the Kangla; some scientific sources date the approximate human habitation of parts of the Kangla at around 18,000? years BC) were first inhabited by a group of people, called Lai people, coming down from the Koubru Mountain ranges (to the north-west of present day Imphal); & their descendants became the Meetei. They had been there (in Koubru) since the very beginning of time – may even be the first Homo Sapiens.

[In accordance with a theory of first Human appearance (by about  195,000 years ago) & evolution in Africa, some learned argue that they came in one of the waves of pre-historic migrations from Africa, some 70,000-50,000 years ago, arriving in present India, around 20,000 years ago, & through Northeast India, including present Manipur, went to Southeast Asia.

But, there is also an interesting claim & theory put forward by the respected Meetei learned, Mr. Wangkhemcha Chingtamlen, in his book, ‘Kangleipak : the Cradle of Man' arguing the ancient Kangleipak as the origin place of Homo Sapiens, based on the scientific findings of the famous Chinese Paleoanthropologists, Professor Jia Lanpo, whose 40 years research concluded the place of origin of Homo Sapiens as in the southern part of East Asia, which very much includes the ancient kingdom of Kangleipak. Mention is also there of an evidence of 1969 which clearly asserts that  the Ramapithecus from Northeastern Indian is not less than 4,500,000 older than the Australopithecus from Eastern Africa, thereby giving less  weight to the African origin of modern man. Besides citing numerous folklores, folktales, mythologies, traditions of the ancient Kangleicha backing the theory that Kangleipak is indeed the cradle of mankind].

 

(d) The Meetei – Theory of some early foreign influence – The Chinese:

One among the many theories indicates the early Chinese influence (though not proven & strongly objected by many). A group of adventure seeking people [believed to be of earlier Shang Dynasty (~1600BC?/1766BC? - ~1117BC?/1046BC?), China, founded by the rebel leader of Shang tribe, Cheng Tang or Zi Lu, after fighting 18? years (11? major battles) against the Emperor Jie, the last of the Xia Dynasty (~21st to the 16th century BC?/2033BC?-1562BC?) & ultimately overthrowing him in the Battle of Mingtiao?] reached the Koubru Mountain ranges, Kangleipak, following the Yangtse river -{The river which traditionally divides the Chinese martial arts into Northern styles (which lay more focus on legworks, kicking & acrobatics etc) & the southern styles (which lay more focus on low stable stances, short powerful movements, combining both attack & defense, use of arm & full body techniques)}- from the Yangtse river to the Chindwin river or Ningthi tural (now in Myanmar), passing the Somra hills, & reaching the origin of the Ireel river, & ultimately the Koubru.

[(a) Cheng Tang was the 14th generation Shang leader (descendent of Yilu? & his son Yao Situ?, the vassal of then Xia King / & descendent of Gaoxin?, the great grandson? of the legendary Yellow Emperor, Huang Di, of China,~2697BC? -  ~2597BC?) was a good & virtuous ruler, a model/ideal ruler, whose example was imitated by every monarch. He ruled as a king for13?years, succeeded by his younger son (as believed by many- the elder son, Tai Ding/Da Ding is said to have died at an early age without succeeding his father), Wai Bing?.

(b) Shangs are the tribes who used to live in the lower reach of the Yellow River (hence also called Yellow Civilization).Their Dynasty lasted ~ 508? years, with 31? kings belonging to 17? generations, & ruled much of the northern (or northeastern) China, with seven different successive capitals. Two most important events/developments during the period were the invention & development of a writing system (the ancient Chinese inscriptions found mostly on tortoise shells, & flat bones, mostly of cattle's, like scapulae etc- called oracles bones; bronze inscriptions; on pottery, horn, stones etc), & the use of bronze metallurgy.

The advance bronze casting techniques gave them a military advantage-their infantry were armed with varieties of bronze (& stone, wood or horn) weaponry- like bow, axe, halberd or  ji ( similar to a spear, with an extra blade attached at its end.) etc- although the bronze was commonly used for art rather than weapons. Hunting was considered as an important part of their martial training. They practised some earliest form of Chinese martial arts- Shoubu ch'uan fa/kung fu; jiao di (or horn butting developed by The Yellow Emperor, Huang Di, ~2697BC? -  ~2597BC?;  bow & arrow are also said to have been invented during the reign) & earlier form of Xiang Bo (much similar to sanda/sanshou of present day wushu). Martial arts also evolved into a kind of dancing, which was very useful for training soldiers, & increasing their morale. Many of the wrestling techniques were applied in battlefields.

There was rapid development of the skill & technology of sword forging, & sword ceremony. They (specially near the end of their dynasty) were also known to migrate (emigrate) & travel far & wide - the claim of their travelling? & settling? to ancient America- sharing part of ancestry of native/indigenous American people?, & the foundation of Gija Joseon? in ancient Korea; hence, the claim of their immigration to the ancient kingdom of Kangleipak is not much surprising to many.

{Gija Joseon was an ancient kingdom founded by Gija & his descendants.(Gija/Jizi? was a virtuous Shang royal blood- paternal uncle or nephew/brother?- of the last Shang king Zhou, a tyrant, & was one of the 3wise men-other Weizi & Bigan- of the Shang dynasty. He was imprisoned by the king, & was set free by the king Wu of the Zhou dynasty - western Zhou:1046BC?-770BC?; eastern Zhou: 700BC?-256BC?-  after overthrowing the Shang dynasty at ~1046BC?. He fled - not wanting to be a loyal subject to the Zhou dynasty?/ went in exile- to ancient Korea with his garrison of 50000 men, & founded the kingdom of Gija Joseon,1122BC?/1100BC?/?-194BC?, with 41 rulers?- the people of Seonu clan of Korea consider themselves as being the descendents of Gija).

The kingdom either succeeded? Gojoseon kingdom (2333BC?-1100BC?/108BC?,the first legendary kingdom of Korea, founded by legendary Dan'gun, son of Hwanung- founder of Sinsi/holy city, & grandson of Hwanin, lord of heaven), or co-existed with it at its west end, west of Liao river, until overthrown by Wiman (dynasty,194BC?-?/108BC?)}]

Around 1445 B.C., one leader of the group, Tang-Ja Leela Pakhangba (1445-1405 BC) {Pakhangba here isn’t the Meetei God, but a name/title; ‘Pa’ = forefathers, ‘khangba’ = knowing; one who knows his forefathers} married the daughter (Sinbee Leima) of the Chief of Lei-hou people (~ Lai people??), & established his kingdom in the ancient Kangleipak.

[However, the current popular theory rejects all the above claims, & stated that the first monarch of Kangleipak was Konchin Tukthapa Ipu Athoupa Pakhangpa (a ‘Lai'), who ascended the throne near >2000BC(+) {~>1737 BC(+)} & fathered seven sons - the seven Salais, begotten from his seven Lai wives/queens, whose descendents become the Meetei].

 

(e) The Meetei – Theory of some early foreign influence – The ancient Immigration:

An important intermixing of different groups of people occurred during the reign of the king Chingkhom Poireiton (34-18 B.C.; as from some source, though have many objections).There was a place named Khamtilong at the junction of three kingdom – China, Tibet & Myanmar, inhabited by different tribes – Nung, Chakpa, Kham, Mon, Khu, Nga etc (considered to be neo-Tibetans).

In response to the invitation by the people of then Kangleipak (known as Tai-Pong-Pan to the people of Kham-Nung; as there was no ruler present- it is believed that for about 700 years?, there were no rulers in the ancient Kangleipak, before & around? this immigration), Chingkhom Poireiton was sent by his brother, Thongarel, Kham-Nung Saowa,  the great man of the Nung tribe to rule the place; hence came accompanied with lots of people, of the above mentioned tribes (they are believed to have followed Buddhism?), who inter-married & lived together with the earlier {Lei-Hou (-Tang-Shang)?} inhabitants of the ancient Kangleipak (Kangleipak was then called Poirei-lam, & the inhabitants: Poirei-Meetei).

[Here we see one of the earliest Buddhist influence. Some even argued the derivation of the term Sanaamahi (indigenous religion of Meetei) from Sanaamahay {~meaning the royal fruit, the essence of the teaching of the lord Buddha (the historical Budha was known by the name Kawtumuni)}.Many Buddhist articles (including marble statues of the lord Buddha) have been found in excavation in various sites of Manipur. Also, in ancient Meetei literature like Subikaa (ancient astrology book), many drawings & sketches, found are of Buddhist elements or influenced by them.

Buddhism was hardly known to Kangleipak, but some of its elements are said to be invariably found? in our culture & tradition , as interpreted by some scholars{like the Meetei tradition of worshipping Sanaa Khongnaang (sacred fig tree); & the Buddhist belief of Prince Siddhartha (historical Buddha or Saikyamuni) attaining enlightenment under an sacred fig tree/ Bo (Bodhi vrikhs) tree};- besides some believe Buddhism was considered to spread to Myanmar/Burma, passing through Northeast India (also one of the three ancient silk routes passed through Kangleipak- perhaps leading to Yunnan; but was stopped since 1820 AD); The Pyu & Mon kingdoms of ancient Burma are known to practise Theravada Buddhism -  however many strongly object this claim stating the communicating link between Mainland India & South East Asia didn't included Kangleipak at all - either through Assam etc or by sea route, even the claimed silk route never touched Kangleipak.

Nevertheless, everyone knows the emphasis given in the development of almost every orient martial art with Buddhism].

 

(f) The Meetei – The Seven Salais, & the Kingdom:

After some duration, from these people, the indigenous seven feudal clans/Salais of the Meetei; & all their closed associate brothers (many hill tribes) sprang out (in the previous section, more accepted origin theory of the seven Salais of the Meetei was given – as a direct sons of the first monarch of the Meetei. Also, it’s believed that some groups of the Meetei Salais went to the surrounding hills & contributed to the ancestral line of hill tribes – possibly the Kabui, Tangkhul tribes & many others etc).

The seven clans of Meetei – {the Ningthouja or Mangang (descendents of the 1st son, Mangang, traditionally believed to have administrative center at Imphal Kangla) , the Angom (of the 4th son, administrative center near the Kongba river) & the Khapa-Nganpa (of the 6th son, administrative center at Taknakha area) – latter, mostly settled along the river courses, as with any great civilizations, of Nambul, Kongba, Hill & upper portion of Imphal;  the Khuman (of the 3rd son, administrative center at Pumlel) – settled in Thoubal, Wangjing & lower course of Imphal rivers;  the Moilang (of the 5th son, administrative center at Moirang) – along the Maklang, Nambol, Thongjaorok, Khuga & Moirang rivers; the Luwang (of the 2nd son, administrative center at Langkol Ningthou Laipham) – along the Luwangli, Phumlou, Abalok & Isingda rivers; & lastly, the Salail Leisangthem (of the 7th son, administrative center at Leisang Hithen area) – along the Maklang & Nambol rivers} – were  at frequent fighting & struggling among themselves (& with other tribes) for supremacy & power, thereby constantly improving & refining their martial skills – the experiences were accumulated & many new techniques discovered/invented,& passed down from generations to generations.

Eventually, the Ningthouja clan is believed to have subdued the whole & emerged as the supreme power, thereby uniting the feudal clans, & an independent kingdom arose {however Moirang clan was annexed much later, in the year 1435? By Meitingu Ningthoukhomba (1432-1467); Khaba clan was the first to get absorbed} in 33 A.D.

This happened under the able & dynamic leadership of the great Meitingu (= king) Nongda Lairen (Nongda Lairen=heaven born) Pakhangba (33-154 A.D.), with the help of Angom Pureiromba & Luwang Langmaiba (his allies included two Kuki Chiefs also – Kuki Ahongba & Kuki Achouba), as per many.

[However, about 163?? kings are believed to have ruled the Kingdom before him. He was the descendent of the line of Meitingu Tangja Leela Pakhangba (1445 BC-1405BC) & his son, Meitingu Kangba (1405-1359 BC); & he married Laisra, daughter of the line of Meitingu Chingkhom Poireiton (34-18 BC) kings].

He was the one, among the first to in habitat some of the low-lying valley of Kangleipak, which he named Kangla (meaning dry land) – some present scholars are strongly against this view & considered Konchin Tukthapa Ipu Athoupa Pakhangpa as the establisher of the Meetie Kingdom, & Lai people being the first to inhabitate the valley, as its written in sacred puya of Meetei.

[(a) Although ruled by Khaba clan before him (the Khaba chief, Nongjenba?, was killed by him with the help of Moirang army & Chaoba Meleiba; eventually the weakened Khaba clan is said to have merged with Nganba subclan to from Khaba-Nganba clan later?). Kangla, situated on the bank of the Imphal river, (later referred as ‘The Manipur Fort' by the British.) not only was the capital/ royal palace from his period till the year 1891, but also a holy place for Meetei; Lord Pakhangba is believed to reside under ‘Kangla', besides there are some 360 sacred places of Meetei in it.

Since its occupation by the British on 27th April 1891, a column of security forces- Assam Rifles (the oldest Central Para Military Force in India) was stationed there, which even, after the independence & merger with India (as per the controversial Merger agreement of 2nd Sept.1949), was not removed from there, to the much discontent of the Meetei.

{The agreement was signed unwillingly by the King of Manipur, Meitingu Bodhchandra (1941-1955) at Shillong (Meghalaya), as a result of immense pressurization & as forced by the newly formed independent Indian govt.( Shri Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the Iron man of India, was given the task of unification & annexation of princely states into mainland India).

It may be noted that the Meetei king, - after the handed over of the Manipur by the British to the him & his queen, Iroshi Devi, at 12 midnight of 28th August 1947, after the 2nd world war (1939-1945; in Manipur, 1942-1945) - had already declared the Manipur as a sovereign kingdom/ state, linked to India only by the act of accession. Also, by the July 1947, the making of the constitution of Manipur (drafted by the committee, whose composition was done earlier on 12th Dec. 1946, on the order of the Meetei king, Meitingu Bodhchandra) was already completed.

As per the first election poll of Manipur on Jan. 1948 (as a result of the recommendation by the council of princes of 1946, for establishing popular elected governments in Indian states), the first elected govt. of Manipur was formed, & Shri Priyobarta, the brother of the Meetei king, was offered the post of first C.M. (he was already working as C.M., appointed by the Meetei king himself, for the interim govt. just after the independence).

Unfortunately, with the merger agreement (the king signed it, without any prior accountability of the elected Manipur Assembly, & govt.), the interim Manipur State Council, & the Manipur State Assembly (& the elected govt.) were dissolved. Major General Rawal Amar Singh became the first Indian Chief Commissioner of Manipur, on 15th Oct. 1949, after the annexation of Manipur to India (Manipur was given a part ‘C' territory status, basically his province- he had the power to rule the land even without consideration of the people). With much struggle & hardship (since early 1950), the statehood was finally achieved in 1972.}

After much pressurization & request to the Union Government of India, finally on 20th November 2004 (~133? years after the British occupation) the Kangla fort was handed over to Manipur State government.

(b) In the ancient times, major portion of Kangleipak valley is believed to be covered by vast water (fresh water), named Loktak (Lok=stream in hillocks; Tak=vast) by Meitingu Kangba (1405-1359 BC) {it was during his reign (Meitingu Kangba) that Sagol Kang-jei (the polo game) is believed to have been introduced; Kang Jei- the stick used like the hockey stick, Kang drom- the ball used}- some scholars are of the opinion that by around 17,000BC? major portion of Imphal valley was dried up].

He is however considered truly the maker of Kangleipak, & during his reign, the Meitei culture took its roots. His dynasty ruled the kingdom continuously in proper chronological order {till the merger of Manipur with the Indian Union in 1949, & as a part of India (upto 1955, a total of about 72 kings – Manipur became a Union Territory of India in 1956 & a full-fledged state in 1972; at present, as per the tradition, Meitingu Leishemba Sanajaoba is the 78th King of Manipur). The art of Thang-Ta began maturing & taking shape.

The Kingdom of Kangleipak then believed to have stretched up to the border of China on the north, up to the river Chindwin in the east & south (present Myanmar), & in the west up to south Bengal sea {‘from the hills on the east to the mountains of the west’ as per from the book ‘THE MEITHEIS’ by T.C. Hodson }. This close geographical & cultural proximity (& interaction) with the neighboring kingdoms (which also have rich martial art traditions),{also probably known to far west & east kingdoms, as the international trade route (including silk route) of past (comprising Europe, The Middle East-Arabs, Asia & Oriental countries) passed through these regions – though disagreed by some}, continuously had a considerable impact in the evolution of Thang Ta.

 

-2nd Part-

(a) The Meetei martial art – Interaction with neighboring Kingdoms – The Chinese:

The inter-influence between the Meetei martial arts & Chinese (China- our once ancient neighbor) martial arts can be roughly understood from some of the historical events- like some of the historic battles & profile of migration between the two.

The earliest Chinese interaction has already been mentioned [In Chinese, ‘Meithei' means ‘people of this country', meaning people of their territory, as per some learned]. Many scholars believe that Meetei travellers/traders? on horses might have reached out to China & upper Burma during the reign of Meitingu Khui Ningngonba (364-379), Pengsiba (379-394)& Naokhamba (411-428).

About the year 1250, a large number of Chinese forces invaded Kangleipak (known to Chinese as ‘Hsiao Po-lo-mein’), during the reign of Meitingu Puyathaba (1247-1263), but was defeated. Many Chinese prisoners of war were assimilated into Meetei society, & settled at ‘Susa Kameng’ in the valley.

[during these periods, in China, the practice of Ch'uan fa/Kung fu  was so popular among the various civil organizations that there some group of people, called Luqi people, made their living performing martial arts all over the country.]

The words of military excellence & martial skills of Meetei Kings spread far & wide, even up to China (‘Khagi’ to Meeteis). In 1576, during the reign of Meetei King, Meitingu Mungyangpa (1562-1597 AD), a Chinese Chief/King (Khagi Ningthou), by the name Piyango (as known to Meeteis), sent (as per a legend / story) one fierce Chinese martial art expert or fighter, by the name, Meitana /Mayadana to challenge the Meetei king for one-on-one lethal combat (so ferocious was he that the commoners feared him as Hingchaba or a demon/monster).

The Meetei King, Meitingu Mungyangpa accepted the challenge, & fought him using his sword name ‘Khoubomba’ & spear ‘Khangshunaha’(believed to be given by the Lord Pakhangba himself, as per a legend). The Khagi- hingchaba (Chinese monstor/demon) was ultimately defeated, killed, crushed & buried under a stone in Kangla, by the Meetei King.{some considered the stone to be at  the ‘Nunggoibi’?, still in Kangla today (It is the sacred place of worship of the goddess of war. Whenever a king of Kangleipak emerged victorious in battle, the sacred ritual of ‘Huyein Lalu Chanba’ was performed at this site)}

[In the same year (1576), Meitingu Mungyangpa got a son, who came to be known as Khagemba (from the word, ‘Khagi - ngamba'; Khagi=Chinese, Ngamba =conqueror)]

It is said that when the news reached the Chinese King/Chief, he was so impressed that he, himself, came (he stayed for a short duration in Kangleipak, before returning to his kingdom) with his royal attendants to the Meetei Kingdom, & presented many precious gifts, they brought from China, including, a flower, ‘Khagileihou’ (‘Khagi’= Chinese; ‘leihou’ ~ flower – a type of flower, very common in present day Manipur) to the Meetei King.  Deeply impressed by the techniques & effectiveness of Thang Ta, many of his attendants stayed {& settled, as believed by many Thang Ta masters, at three places- Koutruk, Sengjam & Chirang (some sources mention the places as Khagi Hingol, west to the Kangla)} & learnt the Meetei art, Thang Ta.

His son, Ningthou (Ningthou=Meitingu=king) Hanba or Meitingu Khagemba (1597-1652), just like his father, was a great King, & also a skilled martial artist. He defeated a troop of raiding Chinese forces; probably from Yunnan province of China, in around 1631. He attacked Chinese Villages, & defeated their Chief ‘Chouopha Hongdie’ (known to Meeteis as Mangolsha or Manubak, a Chinese martial art expert, who was killed by Meitingu Khagemba). He too brought many Chinese war captives, & with them many skills- brick making, sericulture, & to a little extent their martial art system.

[At these periods in China, their martial arts received much development during the Ming (1368?-1644?), & Qing Dynasty (1644-1912?). Many Martial arts books were published. There was integration among various martial arts genres during the Qing period; also were the wrestling techniques introduced into general martial arts - improving & maturing them]

 

(b) The Meitei martial art – Interaction with neighboring Kingdoms – The Burmese:

Another important kingdom which had a significant impact was the Burmese (Kangleipak was known as Kathes, Cassay to them), present day Myanmar, {& to some extent, the other Southeast Asian kingdoms – Many meetei soldiers (as Burmese war captives mostly – who were part of Burmese cavalry corps etc) participated some of battles in these regions. Burmese king Alaungpaya (1752 – 1760, founder of the Konbaung dynasty, 1752 to 1885) surrounded (it’s said that about 500 cassay horsemen were with him) Ayutthaya, the Siamese Capital (Thailand) in 1760, but was wounded accidently & latter died. In 1764, Burmese king Hsinbyushin (1763-1776, 2nd son of Alaungpaya & 3rd King of Konbaung Dynasty, Burma) conquered Chiang Mai (in Thailand), Vientiane (capital city of Laos); he also sacked Ayutthaya in 1767}.

One may understand this by appreciating the similarities between the Meetei Thang Ta & Burmese martial art systems- Thiang (meaning total combat), specially the weapon art of Banshay, (&  the unarmed art, Bando) {& even with the Thai art-Krabi Krabong (Krabi= the sabre, a long sword with curved tip & oversized hilt; Krabong=spear/ staff, the mother art of modern Muay thai.)}.

There was constant social-cultural relationship, & trade contact between the two kingdoms, & even beyond. The similarity of the traditional Meetei male garment, Khudei, with those of Thai & Khmer is amazing. The ancient Meitei script is considered comparable? to that of Thai.

[The Khmer people of the great Khmer empire (of Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, etc) are believed to have come from west? of Burma, & India, in ancient time. They played a significant role in shaping of the ancient Burmese, Thai (& other Southeast Asian) kingdoms]

Some scholars believe that the Mon of Burma (Myanmar) came & settled in the ancient Kangleipak kingdom as early as around 2000BC?. As related to the Khmers? (The Meetei called them Khamarans, well many agree it was instead referred to the Burmese), it is said that they immigrated around 1000BC? to the kingdom. There is also historical evidence of immigration of many Shans, Tai (Pang) & Chin-Kuki groups from Upper Burma as a result of ravage of upper Burma by the Mongol ruler, Kublai Khan {reign:1260-1294; the 5th great Khan (~ruler) of the Mongol Empire, the founder of Yuan Dynasty,1271?-1368;the grandson of the great Genghis Khan (reign:1206-1227, the founder of Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, the largest contiguous land empire in the world’s history – ~22% of world total land area)}.

It was the Pong king {Burma; Kangleipak was known by the name Cassay/Kassay to Shans / Tais, Kathe to Burmese etc; some scholars even doubt the Pong kings as descendants of the very early Meetei king – the first Pong king, Khool Lai (ascended throne in 80AD; a Meeteilon wordàKhool = Place,  Lai = lord) is considered as Tarung, the son of Pakhangba (?Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, 33-154AD, & his queen Leisuk Leisoi Yampi) who was deputed to hold administration towards the east in Pong}, Chaopha Khekhomba (to whom a Meetei princess was married), who presented a gift- a golden box? containing a stone, known as Pheiya or almighty {later claimed by an immigrant Brahmin as Hindu god Vishnu – hence mark the advent of Vaishnavism, & starting of idol (in the form of sacred stone) worshiping in Kangleipak}, a litter & a sacred spear to guard it to the Meetei king Meitingu Senbi Kiyamba (1467-1508, from the word Senbi-Kiyaang Ngamba; Senbi-Kiyaang – the place, Kabo-Kiyaang in Burma; Ngamba – conqueror)  as a gift to celebrate their victory after conquering (with their combined force, Meetei king was~27years old & Ponk king~47years) the Kiyaang Khambat {the king of Khambaat, Chao-Seng, a subordinate to the Pong king, had kidnapped the Meetei princess Sanna Langmeirangbee (accompanied by her maid servant, daughter of Haoroksu), on her way to Shan capital Mongaung, to be bride of the Pong king around 1475}.

As he rescued the princess, he is also known by the name, Leima-Phaabi, (Leima~queen/princess;Phaabi~capturer).The Meetei king got Khambaat, area on the west of Samjok (Thaungdut or Ksawnghsup), & area covered by Mingkhong & Muwai, as per the agreement with the Pong king.

[He built a brick temple for worshipping the stone at Lamangtong/Lamlangtong(~ 27 km south of Imphal) around 1475.Wel, as claimed by the immigrant Brahmin, the stone was worshiped as Hindu god Vishnu {Some sources claim the statue, probably, as Lord Buddha; as The Pong king was a Buddhist. Also Meitingu Senbi Kiyamba was not a Hindu (he practised the indigenous religion of Kangleipak- Sanaamahism.},& the place was latter called Bishnupur (land of Bishnu/Vishnu).

However, some source states the name ‘Bishnupur' was given by Meitingu Pamheiba (1709-1748 AD) to carve the name ‘Bishnu Goswami' in the history of Kangleipak, who had worshiped Bishnu (Vishnu)? at the place; the King also constructed a temple devoted to the God (Bishnu Temple at Lamangtong / Bishnupur.)  – Bishnu Goswami was the much beloved brahmin/sadhu of the king. According to some learned, this sadhu/monk who was a wandering palm reader was even considered the biological father? of the king, Meidingu Pamheiba.

As per the source, the queen (mother of Pamheiba) of the king, Meitingu Charairongba (1697-1709 AD) - (originally she was a war captive, a Chothe by birth; though the king loved her very much) - was tricked & convinced by the sadhu who threatened her predicting that she would never get a male child from the king (hence none of her bloodline would be the future king), but he, the sadhu, could change her fortune by giving her a male child – a very common trick used by many self proclaimed so called holly men even to these days. Pamheiba (who was smuggled & nurtured since the day of his birth in a Thangal hill village) was adopted by the King (Meitingu Charairongba) at around 20 years of age]

The Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (1486–1752; King Mingyinyo, 1486–1531, founded the first dynasty at Taungoo) sent emissaries asking for Meetei princess {for marriage, to which the Meetei king Meitingu Charairongba (1697-1709) gave his daughter}

However, the relation with Burma was not always friendly, but more hostile. They were frequently faced war situations, & huge war captives (along with their tradition & martial culture) were brought into/ out of the kingdom. From the period of King Meidingu Mungyangpa (1562-1597), many Burmese (Kabo/Awas) war captives (settled at Kabo Leikai, Imphal) & were assimilated into the Meetei society. Meetei king Meitingu Khagemba (1597-1652) defeated Khamarans in 1648. The king of Samjok was defeated by Meetei king Meitingu Khunjaoba (1652-1666) in 1653 & 1659; he also defeated the Kabow valley chief in 1637.

Meitingu Pamheiba (1709-1748) (popularly known as Garibnawaz, a Persian word, meaning ‘kind to poor’- given by Muslim immigrants or Gopal Singh, the Hindu name), invaded Burma after the Burmese king insulted his sister & had not treated her well (she was wife of the Burmese king). He with his skilled army under the great general, Thangjaba Chakrapani?, defeated the Burmese army on many occasions (in 1714, 1725, 1733, 1735, 1737, 1738, 1739, 1748-49 etc).

He was the terror of the upper Burma (under the king Taninganway, 1714 – 1733, the 14th king of Toungoo dynasty; & his son, King Mahadhammaraza Dipati, 1733 –1752, the 15th & last king of Toungoo dynasty of Burma). The upper Chindwin valley was under annual raids. He defeated Samjok king & collected ~1000 guns. His army killed the Burmese troops stationed to guard the Kaung Hmu Daw Pagoda{meaning ~ ‘the royal merit making pagoda’, a white dome-shaped Pagoda at ~10 km from Sagaing, said to be based on the model of the Maha-Ceti Pagoda of Ceylon/ Sri Lanka, was built by King Thalun,1629 – 1648, the 8th king of Toungoo dynasty of Burma in 1636, & its foundation stone is said by some scholars to have been laid by one Jibananda Thakur of Manipur), & vandalized everything on the way upto the wall of Ava in 1738, he was said to have conquered 46 divisions of Burma, of which a Burmese noble, Eu-Aujaya (‘Aaumeiyajee’ was the title) was made the king with capital at Yewa.

He left his sword marks at the door of the Pagoda. His army crossed the Chindwin River & captured Mayedu town on the bank of Yu River. His kingdom extended up to Mandalay? in Myanmar (frequently extended to 3-4 days journey east beyond the Chindwin river; & in the west upto the plains of Cachar). He also repulsed an army of about 20,000 to 30,000.

The Meetei soldiers, specially the cavalry on ponies with excellent skills of Thang Ta were feared & respected by all (&Meetei kings, considered to possess divine powers & abilities). One of the deadly weapons used by Meetei army cavalry was called ‘Arambai’, a steel arrow (commonly poisoned ) with a rope tail, hurled from the war ponies with a very high speed, accuracy, causing maximum casualties to the enemy.

 

(c) The Meetei martial art – The military strategy: ‘Lallup system’:

The Military excellence of the Meetei was mainly due to the ‘Lallup’ system (war/military organization). In Lallup, every male Kangleicha (people of Kangleipak) above 16 years & mostly up to 40 years was a member. There were seven Salai Lallup groups, belonging to the seven clans of Meetei (each controlled by their respected Maichou), all under the central command of the Meetei king.

Each Salai group had their own identifying colour code, even characteristic weapons (swords- as an identification mark; & for ritualistic & religious use) of different shapes & sizes. Every member had to master the art of Thang Ta, & had to ready for action any time, when the Meetei king commanded.

This does not mean Thang Ta was exclusive for males. Kangleipak has witnessed many great female warriors. Three among the many, were the Queen Lingthoingambi (considered as the Joan of Arc, of Kangleipak), Queen Khayoiron Senbung Lokpi & Queen Kuranganayani.

[Queen Lingthoingambi was the wife of the Meetei king Meitingu Ningthoukhomba (1432-1467 AD, conqueror of Tamu), & the mother of king Meitingu Thangwai Ningthouba or Kiyamba (1467-1508, the conqueror of Kabaw Valley). In the absence of her King, she led the Meetei soldiers in various war fronts, & also brought many spectacular victories; like the successful defense to the raid by the Tangkhul tribes from Tuisem village.

Queen Khayoiron Senbung Lokpi was her daughter-in-law, wife of King Meitingu Kiyamba & daughter of Khuman king Thingkonkhuba, & was equally brave – she defeated King of Senbi Mungkhong, Sanaahongba & even raided Panlu or Sasen.

Queen Kuranganayani was the queen of King Suremphaa / Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769, the 33rd King of Ahom Dynasty, 1228-1826?/1838?), daughter of Meetei king Meitingu Jai Singh /Ching-Thang Khomba/ Bhagyachandra? (reign: 1759-1762? AD;1763-1798 AD) who gave her hand to the Ahom king after the Ahom helped him suppressed Meitingu Kelemba?/Chitsai? (1748-1752?) – However, as per other source, Kurangganayani or Tekhao Leima Phongba Lokpi was the daughter of Meitei king Meitingu Gourshyam/Maramba? (1753-1759,1762?-1763).

It was she who played a vital role in killing{as per her plan, he was killed on the  night of 1770? before the Bohag Bihu festival – It's said that she was the first to have struck him with a sword & wounded mortally}one of the rebel leaders, Raghav Moran ( he took her forcibly as his wife after dethroning the king) & helped in suppressing the first phase (1769-1770?) of Moamoria rebellion (1769-1806?) against the Ahom Dynasty. She was also the one who saved the Ahom king Lakshmi Singha/Sunyeophaa (1769-1780, who became her husband & the king after the death of his brother, Rajeswar Singha in 1769) from the Moamoria rebels - he was taken as prisoner by the rebels; & helped in restoring the kingship after suppressing the initial phase of the rebellion]

The Salai clan also had their way of learning & teaching Thang Ta (slightly different from one another). Many techniques were taught in total secrecy, for the fear of revealing to any expert onlooker; & the fear of creation of neutralizing counter attacks etc, if they became well-known & common, & hence no longer would be as effective as before. Even today, Thang Ta is taught & practised by the present masters in different ways (though the final goal is same), according to what they have learnt & experienced.

 

(d) The Meetei martial art – The fall:

With the advent of Hinduism, gradual disbandment & disorganization of the Lallup system & the Lalmee (soldiers) started. The King Meitingu Charairongba (1697-1709, believed to be the last king of the bloodline of Pakhangba) embraced Vaishnavism (Madhavcharya sect of Vaishnavism) around 1704, but he gave equal respect & still regarded the indigenous Meetei religion.

His son, Meitingu Pamheiba {1709-1748, an adopted son who killed his father, the king, by stabbing in the chest when he was in sleep (Meitingu Charairongba was dead tired after defeating the invading Tusuk army; he had not eaten, nor had any drink since the last two days, as a part of the three days rigorous prayer to the Lord Sanamahi Lainingthou as advised for the welfare of the king & the kingdom – unfortunately never completed due to the advancement of the invading army towards the capital, before the dawn of the last day of the prayer)} – on the contrary, was completely swayed away (by the waves of extreme/dark side of Hinduism), & even tried forceful imposition of Hinduism (he was first initiated into Vaishnavism by Gopal Das; latter he switched over to Ramanandi school of Vaishnavism).

Many temples belonging to Meetei traditional religion & deities were destroyed; & replaced by Hindu gods. He prosecuted severely the Meeteis following the traditional religion; & even did not spare those belonging to other sect of Vaishnavism. He banned poultry & piggery (around 1723), even records & books written in ancient Meetei scripts. All the Lupungs (burial grounds for Meetei Kings & his forefathers) were excavated, & the remains, burnt (on 20th March 1724) on the bank of Ningthi river (Chindwin river, then a part of Kangleipak), according to the Hindu rituals (thus starting cremation of deaths among Meeteis; the cremation site of Meetei Kings, the Manglen in Kangla, was subsequently developed by him in the year 1738).

Hinduism became deep rooted into the society, & its influence obvious in every section, resulting in extensive & sudden transformation of the socio- economic & cultural formation. Sanskritisation/Hindunization of the Meetei nomenclature {the kingdom was named as Manipur, so as to relate to the Manipur of the Mahabharata; however the name was believed, assigned officially (British India) to Kangleipak by Mr.Rendel? in 1774? when Mr.Warren Hastings was the Governor General of British India} & introduction of Hinduised gotra of the seven Salais followed.

On the 17th day of Mera (October), 1732 (as decided by a seminar, held at Kangla Hall, Imphal on 9th Oct.2008; well some consider it to be somewhere in between 1721& 1725 A.D)  at the instigation of the king’s religious guru, Shanti Das Gossai (A Hindu preacher who came during the later reign of Meitingu Pamheiba from Sylhet, Bangladesh), all the ancient written documents of the kingdom, ancestral records, including the holy scriptures, called the Puya, were burnt down { Puya Meithaba: an attempt to modify & erase the ancient identity of Kangleipak; & to rewrite the theory of Hindu origin of Kangleipak; even many new Puyas ( as said by some Meetei scholar – ‘Sanggai-Phamang Puyas’ with wrong information??) with  ideas or philosophy concerning with Hindu religion were forced to be written by the scholars, as per his order.} at Kangla Uttra (which is the ancestral coronation hall of the Meetei Kings).

Those Meeteis (the Lois & Yaithibi) {including all the Maichous (scholars like Louremba Khongang Thaba, Langol Lukhoi, Konok Thengra, Wangoo Bajee etc); & many more like Chingngu Khongnangthaba, Moirang Lalhanba etc. were even hanged to death} who resisted to the conversion  to Hinduism {as one among the many techniques of conversion, said by many – people were forced to drink ‘Charnamitra’ or ‘ Khongjum’ (in Meetei language: Meeteilon, basically the water remain after washing or sinking feet- of the Hindu priests; ‘ who knows may be even possible, might have been forced to eat cow dung / cow urine etc ???’.} were tortured, & driven out of the main community to far villages (with them some ancient Meetei records).

All these strained the relationship between the king & the Lallup soldiers (also with the hill tribes, who along the Meetei Loi & Yaithibi were considered as the Sudras, the lowest caste in Hinduism, & uncivilized.), who often became to be viewed with suspicions. Top military commanders became Hindu immigrants. The Lallup system was deteriorating & with time, becoming more a civil organization (from its original military organization).

This collapsing of the Lallup system (& also due to the prevailing political turmoil as a result of the frequent fights for controlling power & throne among the princes of the kingdom) may be attributed for the 6 khuntakpa (devastation & abandoning of the Meetei kingdom due to Burmese army terror).

Two during the reign of king, Meitingu Gourashyam  or Linwai Phallou Maramba (1753-1959 AD; 1762?-1763 AD ), when the Burmese king Alaungpaya (1752 – 1760, founder of the Konbaung dynasty)’s force (of the highly militaristic Konbaung Dynasty, 1752 to 1885; by 1758, his force had reunited almost all of Burma) invaded Kangleipak in 1755 (The Burmese use fire arms against the Meetei with traditional weapons, & Khuntak Ahaanba, the first devastation followed) & 1758; three in the year 1764, 1769, 1772 during the reign of King Meitingu Ching-Thang Khomba/ Bhagyachandra (reign: 1759-1762? AD;1763-1798 AD).

The last one, lasting for seven years, was known in the history of Kangleipak, as ‘Chahi Taret Khuntakpa’ from 1819 to 1825, ending the reign of King Meitingu Marjit (1813-1819).

The Meetei force faced defeat in the hand of King Hsinbyushin’s (1763 – 1776) force (of Konbaung dynasty, 1752-1885, Burma) {as believed assisted?? by Chitsai, uncle of Meitingu Ching-Thang Khomba, who had killed his father (Ching-Thang Khomba’s) Samjai Khurai-Lakpa (the elder son of Meitingu Pamheiba) in Awa (Burma). In the subsequent years, the King, Meitingu Ching-Thang Khomba fled (along with his queen, & a few royal attendants) to Cachar/ Ahom kingdom, Assam (Kangleipak was known by the name Meklee/ Magloo/ Magalu /Moglai to them & to Cacharis). About 300,000 Kangleicha (the people of the kingdom) were believed to have been either carried away or killed around 1768? (near the city of Ava, the presence of about 100,000 Kangleicha captives were reported)

[The king fled to Cachar many times - atleast thrice? in the history, first in 1764 when the Burmese force counter attacked to his raiding of Awa (with Ibungo Sija Haricharan); 2nd in 1769 when  the Burmese attacked (after he killed King Khelei Nungnang Telheiba,1764-1768); 3rd in 1772 when the Burmese counter attacked his raiding.]

 

(e) The Meetei martial art – The famous ‘Maram Ta Khoushaba’:

There are some interesting incidents (story) during his exile. On his way to Cachar / Ahom kingdom, the king reached ‘Maram’ , a village on the mountain top, where the inhabitant tribes failed to recognized him, & demanded a proof of his identity (as they had heard many stories about the divine power of the Meetei king). To this, The king did a “Ta Khoushaba”(Thang Ta spear form/ martial dance) on a hard rock, leaving his foot prints (in the spear form/pattern, about 70-80% utilization of lower extremities is needed), as he did various moves (Phanba) of the form.

Similarly, when he reached Ahom kingdom (as a result? of a letter from his crafty uncle, Chitsai, poisoning the Ahom king, Suremphaa / Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769, the 33rd King of Ahom Dynasty, 1228-1826?/1838?) that it was an imposter not the Meetei king, who was taking refuge at his court), he (without any weapons) was asked to tame & control one fierce, wild elephant at Rang Ghar {a royal sports- pavilion or stadium like, for observing sports, animal fights, social functions etc in Ahom kingdom, built in 1746 by Ahom King  Sunenphaa or Pramatta Singha (1744–1751, predecessor of king Rajeswar Singha) – considered one of the oldest amphitheater in Asia, located in Sibsagar district of Assam} as a proof of his identity as a Meetei king (believed to possess divine powers). So beautifully & gallantly he did the formidable task, winning the respect & belief of Ahom people instantly. Thereafter, the Ahom king helped him regained the throne of Kangleipak.

{Two attempts were made to reinstate Bhagyachandra by the Ahom king in 1765 & in 1768. The first attempt (Ahom army) led by  Haranath Senapati Phukan was unsuccessful (due to attack by Naga tribes, lack of food, heavy thickness of the forest & poisonous snake bites etc – hence called Lat kata run or war in the midst of cutting the creepers). The 2nd attempt was important for his ultimate regaining of the throne (~10,000 Ahom infantry led by Kirtichandra Borbarua + army (which included many hill tribes also) raised by Bhagyachandra, total, said to be ~80,000 infantry).

Finally, his force defeated King Wangkhei Binodram’s (who was installed by the Burmese as the Kangliepak king in 1772) in 1755 at Lamangtong & Foiching.  He ruled the kingdom till 1798?}

[As a devotee of lord Govind (Cheitanya's School of Vaishnavism); he is said to have been helped by the lord himself (who tamed the elephant as the Mahout). After this incident, as revealed in his dream, an idol of the Lord (some said to be four in no.) was carved form a certain Jack fruit tree growing on the slopes of Kaina hill (26 km from Imphal on Imphal-Yairipok Road), & installed at a Temple at his Langthaban (Canchipur) Palace (11th Jan ?1779). After the installing, ras-leela was played continuously for five days (at the open ground of Ras Mandal Pukhri). The dance (Kunja Ras, Maha Ras, Basanta Ras), its dresses etc, are said to have been composed by the King with the help of his daughter, princess Bimbabati or Shija Laioibi, as what he had seen in his dreams. Actually, Ras Leela dance can be concluded? as modified version of ancient Lai Haraoba Dance of Meetei]

 

(f) The Meetei martial art – The major exodus of Thang Ta warriors – The seeding out:

The year from 1819 to 1826 witnessed the dark periods of chaos & devastation in the history of Kanglaipak, painfully engraved in the hearts of each Meetei, “The 7 years devastation”.

The Burmese King Bagyidaw (1819 – 1837; 7th King of Konbaung Dynasty,1752-1885; grandson of the 6th king Bodawpaya,1782-1819, the 4th son of king Alaungpaya) sent a large force (~25000 soldiers and 3000 cavalry) under General Maha Bandula, the commander-in-chief (1819 -1825), when the Meetei King Meitingu Marjit (1813-1819) refused to attend the coronation ceremony & pay homage to him (the Burmese King). Meitingu Marjit was defeated (after a fierce fighting of 7 days – ~7000 Meetei vs ~30,000 Burmese soldiers), & he fled to Cachar (in Assam) – the victory earned General Maha Bandula, the title ‘Ne Myo Thura Yegaung’ given by the Burmese king.

Burmese troops took way about 30,001? Kangleicha war captives (around 1820?). Fearing the terror of Burmese army, many thousands more fled to neighboring kingdoms (Tekhao, Assam; Takhel, Tripura; Sylhet, Bangladesh; Awa, Burma etc; also to the hill tribes, mainly Tangkhuls & Kabuis, who latter were absorbed within them). These people, including many Thang Ta masters, took along with them the martial arts tradition of Manipur.

{During & after these seven years, the population of the Kingdom was believed to be reduced by about 30,000-50,000 to ~ 10,000 at the end; it is said that the no.of adult males in the kingdom was less than 3001in 1826; however, the total no.of Kangleicha either killed or captured during 1764-1824 was estimated to be around 2lakhs, about 9/10th of the total Meetei in the period}.

 

(g) The Rebirth:

Slowly with time, the national struggle against the Burmese rule became stronger, & the first standing army, the Manipur Levy, was created. With 500 Meetei Levy (which subsequently was increased to 2000?, with many hill Kangleicha), under the Gambhir Singh (Chinglen Nongdrenkhomba) with the help from British (Captain F.J. Grant and Lieutenant R. Boileau Pemberton were the officers) succeeded in expelling the Burmese from Cachar (Assam), & Manipur (Ningthee river/ Chindwin river was made the eastern boundary of Manipur) in the 1st Anglo-Burmese war (5th March 1824-1826), considered (by many) as the longest & most expensive war in the history of British India.

[The British {Mr.Verelst (Venositart?, the Governor of Bengal), chittagong Chief of British East India Company} had signed a treaty in 1762 with the Kingdom (Meitingu Gaurashyam/Maramba (1753-1759, 1762?-1763) that the British would give necessary assistance for protecting the Kingdom from outside invaders (Burmese, Nagas etc) {for a land (a village) given to them (British) by the Meetei King for the East India Company posting – another similar treaty was signed in 1763}.Unfortunately, The British weren't able to reach & reinforce the Meetei army during the times of devastions].

Gambhir Singh was crowned the King of Manipur with capital at Langthabal (Canchipur) (1825?-1834). About 763?Awa (Burmese), & 152? non-Manipuri were brought as war prisoners- with them their martial tradition…..to be concluded in 2nd section

Compiled & written by:

Dr.HanjabamCha Barun,

MBBS,DSM(sports medicine) std.,

NS NIS,Patiala,Punjab,India,

Martial artist & Thang Ta practitioner,

Chief instructor & Founder,C.G.Thang Ta Association,Raipur,C.G.,India.

Email: dr.barun.hanjabam@gmail.com

About the Author

Dr.HanjabamCha Barun,

MBBS,DSM(sports medicine) std.,

NS NIS,Patiala,Punjab,India,

Martial artist & Thang Ta practitioner,

Chief instructor & Founder,C.G.Thang Ta Association,Raipur,C.G.,India.

Email: dr.barun.hanjabam@gmail.com

Learning Arabic Online: Benefits Of Arab Language Lessons Over The Web

There are several reasons why people wish to learn to speak Arabic. One may be because they’ll be going to Middle East countries for the holidays and would want find their way more easily there e.g. have no troubles communicating with the natives; another reason why some may want to take Arab language lessons is because they will be working for a multi national company wherein they will be working with Arabs; there are people, on the other hand, who may have developed relationships with native Arabic speakers, which is why they have decided to go through with learning Arabic online or traditionally (offline). Here are some of the benefits of online language learning of the above mentioned language as compared to the traditional learning method:

1. One of the main advantages when you learn to speak Arabic over the Internet is the convenience it offers you. As long as you have a good Web connection and your own computer, you can study the lingo right from the comfort of your home. If you wish to hang out in your favorite coffee shop and still be able to join Arab language lessons on line, you can still do so, as long as you have a netbook or laptop – just use the coffee shop’s WIFI connection. When learning Arabic online, there is no reason to miss the course, wherever you are, if you have the necessary tools (as mentioned earlier a Web connection and your laptop or PC).

2. Online language learning also means you can learn at your own pace or at the time you desire. Unlike in traditional classroom learning wherein you can only learn to speak Arabic based on your instructor’s schedule e.g. private tutor, or the schedule of the class you signed up for or enrolled in a university, school, or college. If you have work the whole day and you only have free time in the evenings, you can still gain knowledge on communicating with Arab people through Internet Arab language lessons.

3.   If you only have a small amount of money for lessons, you’ll also realize that various online language courses are easy on the pocket, compared to the traditional or conventional courses. With just several dollars, you’ll be able to find the course you want, where as traditional methods of teaching will require you to shell out an amount way larger than the course fee for online lessons.

Learning Arabic online has many benefits. If you want to learn the lingo in an affordable manner, wish to be able to speak to native speakers of the language more quickly, and if you want convenience, better go for web based Arab language lessons.

About the Author

Karen Winton reminds people how beneficial knowing more than language is. People who yearn to speak Arabic should try: Learning Arabic Online. Wish to be able to speak Spanish? Check out: Synergy Spanish.

A Short Break in Libya

Are you tired of those weekends away in London, Paris and New York? Do you long for a change of scene? How about a ‘mini break’ in Libya?

 

I’d wanted to go to Libya for a while but had been put off by what had seemed to be mountains of red tape and the apparently prohibitive expense of having of having to sign up for an escorted group tour. After looking into it a bit more deeply, however, I discovered that it was possible to visit Libya for 48 hours without having to join an expensive package tour. I found that I could combine a longer trip to West Africa – where I could fly into Cotonou in Benin, and then fly home for Bamako in Mali – with a short break in Tripoli. The visa would cost me 90 Euros but there was no extra change for the stopover. As Afriqiyah was the cheapest option from London to West Africa, anyway, I thought I’d try and make it to Libya before all the crowds arrived.

 

After emailing my credit card details and a scan of my passport to the Sarah Guardian Hotel, they promptly emailed me back a visa number that I simply presented at Tripoli airport, to be given my proper visa. I seemed to be the only passenger on my flight from Gatwick, that wasn’t just switching planes in Tripoli on the way to a variety of destinations in (mainly) West Africa. I had opted to pay another 10 Euros to be picked up at the airport by a driver from the hotel, and sure enough, as soon as I walked through customs (with minimal fuss), there he was, holding up my name on a piece of cardboard. I couldn’t believe how easy it had all been.

 

On my arrival at the rather anonymous looking budget hotel, Ali, the manager, dragged himself away from the large flat screened television to warmly welcome me in. I couldn’t help noticing the scenes that were being reported on either CNN or BBC World. Not long before I had left, a protestor in Tunisia had set himself on fire, leading to a sudden and violent uprising against the current regime. For decades, Tunisia had been held up as an island of stability in this troubled region of the world; while both of its neighbours, Algeria and Libya, were considered to be pretty much no-go areas for all but the most adventurous of travellers, Tunisia was full of tourists. They were now all leaving in droves, and from what I could gather from the international news, the same kind of uprisings seemed to be kicking off all over the Arab world. In the few hours between setting off early to the airport, and arriving in Tripoli, protestors had also taken to the streets in Egypt, Algeria, Yemen, Syria and Bahrain. Nothing like that had happened in Libya. Ali assured me that Libya was a very safe country. Everything was fine.

 

The Sarah Guardian Hotel was comfortable enough, had satellite television in the rooms, and had free drinks, snacks, breakfast and internet. I had originally booked the smallest and cheapest room at around thirty Euros a night but they had already booked this out. I agreed to pay more for a larger room, which I could then use right up until it was time to fly out in two night’s time. I had also agreed to hire out a taxi for the day to take me to the Roman ruins at Leptis Magna, as well as to and from the airport, as there appeared to be little in the way of public transport. By the time that my 90 Euros for the visa (plus another 10 Euros ‘registration fee’ that I hadn’t know about) was added on, it was going to work out as a rather expensive add-on to what was meant to be a low budget backpacking trip to Africa. The option to stopover in Tripoli might have been free but the lack of any tourist infrastructure or real competition, meant that any visit to Libya would be far from a bargain.

 

As it was already starting to get dark, it seemed a bit late to walk the 3 or 4 km into the centre of Tripoli. Instead, Ali drew me a map of the local streets, and I set of to explore Libya’s largest and most cosmopolitan city. I had half hoped to find myself wandering through exotic, incense scented bazaars, while be-robed and turbaned Arab tribesman tempted me with their exotic offerings. Instead, I bought a kebab off some bloke in a shell suit. Having said that, it was an exceptionally tasty kebab; overflowing with grilled lamb and vegetables, and French fries. Fat women in burkas tried to push in front of me, in the busy queue, so I edged forward to block the way. Nobody seemed to take much notice of me. They were far more interested in getting their dinner than in what a foreigner was doing in there.

 

The buildings in this part of Tripoli looked grey, cheap and poorly constructed. After oil was discovered in Libya in 1959 and rural migrants began to flood into the capital in search of this new found wealth, the rapid expansion of Tripoli was poorly planned and chaotic. Consequently, most of the building and roads, outside of the historic centre, just seem to have been thrown down anywhere. Despite only being a few decades old, many of these hastily constructed blocks of flats already seemed to be falling down. Every now and again, one of the huge expanses of greyness would be broken up by a billboard of either Colonel Gaddafi or a consumer desirable. The further you moved from the roads radiating out of the historic Green Square, at the very political heart of Libya, the less likely you were likely to see billboards featuring the apparently melting Gaddafi, and the more likely you were to see them depicting what the people really desired.

 

Having walked around in the dark for long enough, I bought a Snickers bar at a friendly corner shop, and went back to my room to watch CSI Miami. They were still showing the riots on CNN but I’d seen enough of that kind of thing.

 

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There were a few Westerners at the hotel’s buffet breakfast that were here for business but I was the only tourist. Having eaten my fill, I was introduced to Muhammad, who was going to drive me the 130km or so to Leptis Magna. It seemed kind of extravagant (and expensive) to hire a taxi for the day, just for myself, but I justified it by reminding myself that Leptis Magna is one of the greatest sights in the whole of the Mediterranean. The city was established as Lebdah by the Phoenicians around 1100 BC and later became Africa’s premier Roman city, under the reign of the Libyan Roman Emperor, Septimus Severus (r AD 193 – 211). If Leptis Magna was in Tunisia or Morocco or Egypt, then it would be crawling with thousands of tourists. As it is, it receives remarkably few foreign visitors. Every now and again, a luxury cruise liner will anchor down nearby, and the site will be inundated by hordes of affluent coffin dodgers but most foreign visitors will find that they are the only ones.

 

After a couple of stops at police road blocks – who soon lost interest after a cursory glance at my passport – we soon arrived at a sandy car park at the edge of the ruins. There were a couple of gift shops and a café but no other tourists. A number of ‘guides’ were sitting around, sipping at mud like Libyan coffee, while hoping for some visitors. Muhammad had already phoned up his friend, the stripy jumpered Jamal, and arranged for him to meet us. Jamal sat us down at a table, bought us coffee, and proceeded to make polite conversation. It seemed to have been assumed that he was going to be my guide. Knowing that the guides charged so much, I thought I’d better bring up the subject of money before we began and rather foolishly agreed to his lowest rate without bargaining harder (they will often make out that it is compulsory to have a guide in Libya when this isn’t always true).

 

After paying the small official entrance fee, we walked past the closed museum and down towards the huge lump of ornately carved stone that is the Arch of Septimus Severus. The monument can’t be dated precisely, but it seems that it was erected soon after the Emperors defeat of the Parthians. The grand arch covered the crossroads on the main street of the city and each of its corners points to the four corners of the compass. It clearly marked the point at which all roads from Leptis Magna began. We carried on further, down the ancient road towards the once great port. Jamal seemed nice enough but he didn’t seem to know any more about the history of the site that I hadn’t already gathered from my somewhat ropey guide book. He led me into the Hadriatic Baths, where a few Libyan day trippers were also wandering around. After pointing out some particularly well preserved mosaics – quite a few of the better ones had actually been carted off to the Jamahiriya Museum in Tripoli – he asked me if I wanted to go to the toilet. This seemed like a strange question to ask as we were in the middle of a huge complex of ruins, but I thought it might be best to make use of the facilities while I had the chance. Jamal led me into ancient toilet area where the citizens of Leptis Magna would all sit in rows to take a communal dump. It was more of a social occasion in those days. Jamal took my camera off me and then urged me to lower my trousers while sitting over a hole in the line of stone carved toilets. As he was taking a picture of me on the toilet, a family of Libyan day trippers emerged from the bathing complex. While quickly moving on towards the forum and the market area, I glanced back to notice that the family behind us was also doing their best to recreate the same picture. It seemed to be the thing to do.

 

Jamal had recently returned from a six month stay in Europe and was constantly being texted or chatting on his state of the art iPhone. I wondered how he could afford all these luxuries but then remembered how much I was paying him. Everyone I spoke to in Libya seemed very keen to see more tourists. They cursed the government for all the obstacles it insisted on putting in place to discourage mass tourism, but all seemed optimistic that Libya would soon start to take off as a major tourist destination. With its miles of empty beaches, outstanding desert scenery, and some of the greatest historic sites in the whole of the Mediterranean, how could it not?

 

We picked our way through the remains of the grand forum that Septimus Severus constructed at the time of Leptis Magna’s greatest prominence, and carried on through the ruins towards the ancient docks that Severus had also extensively rebuilt. The natural harbour had always had a tendency to silt up but these ‘improvements’ had made it far worse. The eastern wharves are particularly well preserved as they ended up being hardly used. It was around this time that Leptis began to seriously over extend itself. By the third century, trade had begun to fall dramatically, and by the middle of the fourth century, large parts of the city had been abandoned. Leptis Magna came under the control of the Vandals in the fifth century, until it was so badly sacked by Berber raiders that it never really recovered. The ruins became a UNESCO world heritage site in 1982 and new archaeological discoveries are still being made today.

Jamal pointed out a carving in one of the large stone pillars.

 ’This is a feelass’ said Jamal. ‘How do say feelass in English?’

I had no idea what he was talking about. It looked like a big willy to me. He pointed out an even bigger one. It was undoubtedly a huge stone carved cock.

‘Ah’ I said, ‘you mean a phallus: an ancient symbol of power and fertility’.

‘Yes’ agreed Jamal, ‘it is a feelass. I want to know the word for this in English so that I can say it to my girlfriend’.

I patiently explained that it was called a willy, and Jamal practiced saying his new word over and over again. He pointed to another ornately carved relief in the ancient cities still standing walls, and demanded to know what those bits were called as well.

‘They are called balls’, I announced authoritively.

‘Ah’ said Jamal, ‘willy and balls’. He seemed extraordinarily pleased with his new vocabulary. I hoped that his next group of cruise ship pensioners would also be impressed with his mastery of the English vernacular.

 

We returned to the site’s entrance and sat down under the trees with some of Jamal’s fellow guides. His friend’s insisted on paying for my ice cold water and strong hot coffee. No other foreign tourists had turned up today, so they would just sit around all day, drinking coffee and chatting. Most of them had spent some time in Europe but none of them were interested in visiting other parts of Africa. They seemed to think of the rest of Africa as being a bit uncivilised. Libya was different.

 

Muhammad drove us a kilometre or two up the road, to see the circus and the amphitheatre in the second part of the Leptis Magna complex. The amphitheatre was built to seat up to 16,000 spectators who would come to be entertained by circuses, chariot races and gladiatorial combat. Criminals would be torn apart by wild animals for the entertainment of the masses, and gladiators would hack each other to death in front of the baying crowds. It seemed difficult to imagine that anything so violent and brutal could have been allowed to happen in such a centre of civilisation. It made you feel glad to be alive today.

 

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I walked away from the news of the uprisings being shown on the large flat screened television, during the hotels’ buffet breakfast, and set out towards the heart of historic Tripoli. The Sarah Guardian Hotel was far better value than anywhere else that I could have booked through the internet, but it was a bit of a walk to get into the historic old town. There didn’t seem to be any buses around and hardly anybody else seemed to be walking. It seemed like everybody had cars. I eventually made my way to Green Square (aka Martyrs’ Square) in front of the Red Castle, the medina and the world class Jamahiriya Museum. I was wary of entering the museum as my guide book stated that it was necessary to hire an expensive guide. This turned out not to be true and I was free to wander around wherever I liked. The grand museum is packed full of artefacts from Libya’s ancient sites at Cyrene, Sabratha and Leptis Magna, but what visitors seem to remember most is Colonel Gadaffi’s old Volkswagen Beetle. They also display the army jeep that he triumphantly drove into Tripoli on in 1969, along with a number of ostentatiously large portraits of Libya’s ‘Brother Leader’.

 

Having walked through the walls of the old city, you find yourself in a typically bustling North African medina. It’s actually remarkably similar to the medina in Tunis, and seems to sell almost identical goods. The only real difference was that I was the only Western tourist. I’m sure that there are organised groups that turn up, and a few Westerners over here on business, but few seemed to have realised that independent travel is (largely) possible in Libya. Towards the further, and less crowded, end of the medina, is the Arch of Marcus Aurelius (around 163 AD), the only remains of the Roman city of Oea. Most of the international hotels, along with a few restaurants, and some old European Consulates, are situated in the narrow lanes around this photogenic arch. You can even buy Libya tourist t-shirts at the solitary souvenir shop. I couldn’t find the old French Consulate building and nobody seemed to be around at the old British Consulate when I wandered in, but the architecturally similar House of Yusuf Karamanli was open to the public. The atmospheric Ottoman mansion was full of enthusiastic children exhibiting their art work. I was warmly welcomed in and shown around the exhibits over the two stories of rooms that overlooked the fountain in the central courtyard.

 

After meandering through narrow lanes of blacksmiths, bakers and artisans, I found myself back under the clock tower in the square between the Red Castle and Medina, where the popular Magha as-Sa’a traditional teahouse is located. It’s actually more of a posh coffee shop, now, than a traditional teahouse, with excellent cappuccinos, and large plasma screens hung across the trendy interior. I opted instead to sit outside, in the pleasant town square, and take in the sights of this unusually calm and peaceful city. A short break in Libya may have cost me more than I would have hoped, but I thought that it was worth it, to at least have had a taste of Libya just as the country was beginning to open up to the world, and before the real tourist invasion began.

 

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Four weeks later, having backpacked from Benin to Mali, I was back in Tripoli. I had meant to be just changing planes but there was a delay and nobody was telling us why. The huge plasma screens at the airport were no longer showing CNN or BBC World News. The flight delays seemed to be stacking up but then it was announced that a couple of the flights would now be leaving. I rushed to catch my flight to London, and escape the grimly overcrowded airport.

 

Only a few hours after leaving Tripoli, I was glad to find that everything was safe and secure and as it should be in my flat. Even the plants had survived. I turned on the television and tuned into the news only to find that it was now Libya that was making the headlines. The uprising had already started while I was in the airport and my flight back to London had been amongst the very last to leave. Only a few hours later and I’d have been in Libya for rather longer than a short break.

 

About the Author

Tom Coote has recently completed his first full length travel book Tearing up the Silk Road: From China to Istanbul, through Central Asia, Iran and the Caucasus.

More travel stories, articles and photography can be found at www.tomcoote.net.

 

 

what is the best book for learning basic Danish?

I am moving to Copenhagen in July and need to know at least conversational Danish.

Thanks

“Teach yourself Danish”, in the Teach Yourself series is pretty good. It’ll take you through basic vocab, structures and pronunciation. Make sure you get it with the CD though.

Also the book “Colloquial Danish” would add on to the vocabulary side of things quite heavily.

Will “Eastern” or “Egyptian” Arabic be understood in Morocco?

I am planning a trip to Morocco and I have some CDs from the library for Egyptian Arabic and Eastern Arabic. I think Eastern Arabic means Arabic from Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine. I wonder if either of these dialects will be useful in Morocco where they speak Maghreb Arabic, or am I better off learning French?

Hello am i the only Moroccan here.
Don’t worry wallah hanefhamak kwaiss awi, ehna benfham massri, we lebnani, we imarati, we kuwait, we saudi, wa omani, we kul lughat el arab.
Moroccans understand easily all the Arabic dialects. don’t ask how and why, it’s a gift from God. Thanks to the movies too.
don’t worry they all will speak egyptian to you, if you want sa3idi kaman we’ll speak it, ihna gid3an awiiii be bna3raf el wagib

There is need of only a single world language for a single united world family

Via speech or pen for clarity of thought language plays a major role. Language has aided uplifting of human civility and progress. Apart from humans those creatures who cannot express their emotions and thoughts face innumerable problems. These problems were faced by Adam Age man too. He felt distressed with his backward existence. As a result of inspiration for advancement efforts were taken recourse to. The biggest question to be answered was how to express one’s thoughts. It was difficult to progress without others cooperation.

After making tireless efforts in this direction languages were born. The day a well designed language took birth that day was most important in the annals of human progress. In past centuries society had not developed as much as is witnessed today. Apart from its limited arena man knew nothing about the rest of the world. They lived within the periphery of their limited thinking but made efforts for collective progress. This must definitely have happened do to evolution of various world languages. A group of a particular region on earth designed their respective languages based on their capacities. Others too evolved their own language. Thus by living separately from each other or else due to lack of contact with each other primary information that was knowledge oriented could not be shared and communicated. As per requirements of a region these languages evolved according to social needs.

After marching ahead on this progress path today man has entered those times which is called the Scientific Age. Due to mind boggling discoveries of modern science many means of comforts have been designed. New research in arenas of communication, transport etc the entire world has been rendered a small alley. Despite this due to language based differences it takes years to communicate information of one society and country to alien people. In every field of science and information daily newer research data is unfolded. If only there were one world language, the entire world would benefit without any delay. After decades research information is translated into other languages but at that time this information has become old and many changes have set in them.

Today there are around 3000 well known world languages. Only 13 of these are used to carry out world transactions. Amongst major world languages are included Danish, Swedish, Norse, German, Italian, Icelandic, Portuguese, Welsh, Bulgarian, Irish, Spanish, Hindi, Persian, Czech, Finnish, Arabic, Hebrew, Urdu, Berber, Somali, Tibetan, Turkish, Burmese, Siamese, Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Swahili, Uzbek etc.

According to the ‘World almanac 1980′ the statistical figures of how many that speak major world languages is thus. Arabic .14 billion .2 million, Bengali .14 billion, Chinese .8 billion .1 million, English .96 billion, French .1 billion, German .12 billion, Hindi .2 billion, Japanese .11 billion .5 million, German .5 billion .7 million, Malaya/Indonesian .1 billion .6 Spanish .23 billion .8 million, Turkish .04 billion .2 million, Urdu .06 billion .5 million, Vietnamese .04 billion .1 million, Italian .06 billion .1 million etc.

Merely in India there are 181 languages and 540 dialects. In India around 8700 daily, weekly, monthly etc newspapers, magazines etc are published. English newspapers number 2560 and in Hindi there are 2142 publications. Over and above this many others are published in languages like Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Urdu, Malyalam and so on. As per data available the print media spends a whopping .55 billion rupees. These are only India based statistics. Figures of other countries too are available. Countries within the fold of UNO number 154. If the expenses of daily newspaper printing are akin to that of India the world publishing media would be spending 84.7 billion rupees. Literature printed on various topics will be n times more.

Due to variedness in languages many types have to be designed for printing. A lot of hard work and money is used up for this. For various languages a lot of effort, expenses, waste of wealth occurs while making arrangements for their publication. If only there were 1 world language time, labor and wealth could have been saved which in turn could be utilized to solve other world problems.

So far we have discussed finances. But due to language differences it is difficult to create a bond of love and brotherhood amongst world humanity. When a knower of one language meets a person speaking another language they feel a sense of separateness. As against this when 2 people speaking one language meet immediately a bond of friendship and oneness sets in. love and regards automatically manifest. When in alien countries you meet people of your own nationality a natural joy oozes along with friendship.

According to subtle visionaries and great scholars in the near future the entire world will develop as a single nation. Without this quarrels amongst various countries can never be overcome. Programs will have to be etched at the international level. The aim of the revolution of world humanity will have to be placed in front of all. This indeed will be the 1st step in readying this great mission full of world goodwill wherein a single world language will be unveiled.

In the past 100 years efforts albeit scattered have been made in this direction. But since these are not well designed success was not attained. Many scholars for the requirement of a well established common language have executed due efforts. In the year 1887 Poland’s Dr Lukwik Janes Hard designed a language called Esparanto. Regarding this he authored a book called ‘Toctro Esparanto’. In it were used 921 words, most used in various world languages. Initially .01 million people of 83 countries used this language. 50 national associations, 22 international professional organizations and more than 120 local clubs tried using it. Despite this League of Nations did not give it its approval. For this language there was enthusiasm initially and yet due to inherent errors in it, it did not get universal acceptance. Before this a scholar called Jone Martin Skletcher by creating an admixture of varied world languages designed a language called ‘Bolopik’ in 1887 but why it failed was because it was an incomplete effort devoid of any relationship.

In the year 1907 a scholar called Lias D Vyufont getting inspired by the Esparanto language made new efforts for a single world language. It was called Ido but since it was relegated merely to discussions it failed as a world language. After this was a 4th person called Otto Jamesperson who labored hard regarding this. In 1928 he designed the Novial language but due to errors in it, it failed in getting international approval.

Based on Latin language a mathematician Gayus P Piya in 1903 created Interlingua (Latin Sign Flexin) language. It was an admixture of various languages. Another person who made such efforts was Edgar D Bahal. In 1922 he tried getting world approval for his language Oxintal but since it lacked special qualities required for world approval, it failed.

Britain’s psychologist and education scholar Charles K Egdan in 1932, due to fame of English language, by rendering changes in basic English language, made efforts to design a new international language. He developed a dictionary of 850 words but by giving the world’s chief leading language importance this Basic English did not get world approval.

Despite failure as mentioned above everyone realizes the need of a single world language. By commenting on these efforts ‘Encyclopedia Britannica’ says that further endeavors continue to design a single world language. Even if till today one sees failure to do so that does not mean that all efforts will come to a standstill. There is a high possibility that along with advancement in time we will experience that so many world languages are posing as obstructions to the progress of this world and human civilization. Since in the limited arena of various languages there is lack of provision for application there is a need to choose one language very soon and evolve it further. In order to tie the world in a bond of soul oneness today great leading world seers must take gigantic steps in this direction.

About the Author

AUTHOR: Shriram Sharma Acharya founder of the International Gayatri Family was a great Yogi seer and incarnation of God who wrote volumes of scientific literature mainly on spiritual subjects for world welfare and peace. For more scientific e-books visit: http://www.shriramsharma.com/ and http://www.akhandjyoti.org/ DESCRIPTION: Free e-books on Future Scientific Religion, Gayatri Science & Kundalini Yoga correlated to Neurosciences-ESP, Endocrinology, Anatomy, Psychology & Sociology for 1) material & spiritual prosperity & 2) uniting the world peacefully as a family. Ours is a strictly non-commercial website which aims at realizing the age old dream of great leaders and thinkers of the world: A beautiful borderless world. KEYWORDS: Kundalini Yoga Gayatri e-books biography Guru world peace mind psyche god nerve subtle consciousness soul divine trance endocrine glands ESP Chakras plexus meditation concentration intellect prophecy thought thinking Cheiro Nostradamus Aurobindo bliss brain Vedas solar sun energy sacred pure sense organs Prana Avatar Upanishad light cell hypothalamus pituitary transformation futurist prediction serpent power life human ethics integrity character vagus Tantra Mooladhar atom neutron proton

What are some colleges that have good Theater and Japanese programs?

I’m looking to either major in Japanese (language and translation) or Theater (technical and set/costume/stage management not acting) and I would like to find a college that has good programs in both areas.

I would also prefer that it be in the midwest, though I’m flexible with the location. So does anyone have any suggestions?

I can’t comment on the individual programs, but the University of Minnesota – Twin Cities and the University of Wisconsin – Madison both are highly respected schools. I did a quick search and both offer programs in both areas. Here are the links (I hope they work :/ )

UW Madison Japanese major: http://eall.wisc.edu/?q=node/43

UW Madison Theatre Arts major: http://www.theatre.wisc.edu/Undergrad.htm

U of MN Japanese major: http://onestop2.umn.edu/programCatalog/viewCatalogProgram.do?programID=1883&strm=1093

U of MN Theatre Arts: http://onestop2.umn.edu/programCatalog/viewCatalogProgram.do?programID=119&strm=1089

EXPERIENCED ENGLISH TEACHERS: Please Help Me!!!?

On next Monday I am going to start a new semester at High School as an English Teacher.

Unfortunately, I did not have any resources to plan my first week… this was due to several factors, including null support from school authorities and the English Department. Anyway, I need to focus on my next move.

I will have two groups:

1) One of first semester students (1st time they take this course) Average Age: 16

2) The other of third semester students (they have been in this course for one year) Average Age: 17

In both cases, the English level is ADVANCED, and they will be prepared to take the CAE of Cambridge University.

I have found out a warmer already for my first semester group (this will last one day) but I do not what to do during the rest of the week with both groups, meanwhile I am waiting for my teacher’s book as well as the students receive theirs.

Any ideas about what to do during my first week? I will appreciate any help.

Thank you.

I am an experienced ELA teacher in the US.

Here are some great ideas for the first week.

1. Quick, “get to know you games” such as scavenger hunts, name games etc.

2. Get a baseline of individual skills by having them write a one-page response to the Langston Hughes’ poem, “Theme For English B”. and /or Anne Sexton’s “Where I’m From.” Both these poems inspire the students to write a page about themselves. You can save A LOT of time getting to know your students by having them write an autobiographical, creative piece in response to poetry. It beats the archaic “What I Did Over the Summer Break” essay too!

3. Don’t start a major unit. Instead, why not start with several short stories? Poe? Huxley? Bradbury? King?

4. Choose a current event from the newspaper and hold class discussions, and give them various writing prompts.

In short, the first week should be about getting to know who is sitting in front of you, rather than bombarding them with information and work. Believe me, most of them don’t want to be there. It’s your job to make them feel like they are in a safe haven before you’re able to increase reading and writing skills. Best of luck, and happy school year!

Discover more all around Italian Cooking Courses

The taste of delicious pasta and lasagna lingers in your mouth. You see mouth-watering pizzas being made with interesting sauces and also you wonder exactly how easy it might be for you to learn to make authentic Italian cuisine. With the amount of avenues of learning available you can find any number of locations that will give you Italian cooking courses.

The main thing that you need to discover is that if these places are offering courses that may suit your taste buds as well as your pockets. Also you need to decide if you need to attend an Italian cooking course where you will actually handle the meals while you prepare the meal or if you would prefer to just watch the instructor making the bathroom when you take notes around the cooking lesson during the day.

Additionally there are many community collages that offer various cookery courses. You can travel to your neighborhood community college and find out if they have any Italian cooking courses that could be of interest to you. At these classes you may take notes on how to result in the various dishes and you will likewise be able to use your hand at creating these scrumptious foods.

For anyone who are adventurous you are able to take your sample home and allow your family members taste your version of authentic Italian cooking. Making use of their comments in your mind you can then check if it is possible to recreate the different Italian dishes you have learned in your Italian cooking courses to create a complete Italian dinner.

For the more adventurous theres always a choice of planning to Italy and gaining knowledge through Italian chefs the correct way of making Italian food. These Italian cooking courses are for that food lovers who wish to create their daily dietary intake taste absolutely authentic. Although this way of learning is more expensive there is no doubt that you will be soaking in the knowledge from individuals who cook these food types as a part of their regular lifestyle.

Another means of learning making Italian food is to see what the internet has to offer you. Here youll find many online Italian cooking courses of instruction for you to definitely investigate and choose upon. Some of these courses allow you to talk with your instructor so that you can understand what are the mistakes youll want to correct so you project tastes delicious.

With so many means of learning steps to make various kinds of food you need to have no issues with finding Italian cooking courses that suit your needs. During your studying of learning how to cook like an Italian you will arrive at appreciate the subtleties that adopts making Italian food taste so marvelous.

By the way would you like to find out more about almonds nutrition facts ? Go and visit our almonds nutrition info video for more information on this stunning alternative to help you consume healthful.

About the Author

Hi, Im a nutrition care expert whose mission is to help nutrition sufferers learn how to cure their health problems naturally without wasting their time and money on expensive and dangerous drugs and medications.

Learn French Downloads – Fast Learning With French Language Software

Traditional French language learning has generally been of the “listen and repeat” type, either in class or by way of the old tape systems that I’m sure some of you remember (I certainly do). Although more recently we’ve have CDs and DVDs we’re still presented with the same old methods on them. Now however, at last we have more advanced interactive French language software and in recent years French lessons you can download straight to your pc.

But are they any good or is it just technology for the sake of it?

Like everything else there’s some and some. If you search for free French language software you’re going to probably restrict yourself to a few MP3s you can download. No bad thing in itself as it’s always good to have something to listen too. Every little helps.

You might also find a few mpeg clips that you can view online and why not? If they’re free, what have you got to loose?

The problem is that sooner rather than later you run out of useful information. Not surprising really, most of these guys are trying to make a living so they’ll give you a free taster in the hope that you’ll buy the main French software product. Nothing wrong with that, that’s good business sense, but sadly for us it means we’ve got to put our hand in our pocket!

So do we get good value once we’ve done so? Well for a start there’s plenty of choice from kids ages upwards. There’s also a big price range, from around dollars to several hundreds, and from what I’ve seen so far, you get what you pay for.

At the bottom end you’re not getting much more than the free stuff. In the mid-range things get more interesting and at the top you have to say you’re getting pretty comprehensive French language tuition. Most of these are going to come on CD or DVD although there are a few learn French downloads now available that you just pay for and copy straight from the server to your computer. No waiting for the mail and in at least one case a considerable saving over competing products – around $100 instead of $250 or more.

But $100 is not cheap. You can get quite a few books or basic old-fashioned CDs for that money. What makes this course so superior?

Well really we can forget about books straight away. If you’re an advanced French learner then there are books for verb conjugation and grammar that will prove useful but for the beginner you need to actually hear the language, to hear a French person speaking. You just can’t get that from a book.

What about audio CDs though, you might ask, you can hear people speaking on them. Well yes, but it really is just the listed-and-repeat style learning that most people soon find quite tedious.

Modern French language software downloads really involve the student. You have the audio tracks that you always have had (and which you can still copy to a CD or MP3 player) but now you also have illustrated interactive lessons and vocabulary and word games. The software is constantly challenging you and responding to your answers. As a result you feel involved and your rate of learning accelerates dramatically.

We can’t really criticize the old tape systems. Back then, that’s all there was. To translate them to CDs was really a bit of a cop-out. Fortunately some companies have taken advantage of the technology to provide truly immersive learn French downloads that vastly increase our ability to absorb whilst greatly reducing the time it takes us.

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